Crosscultural Conference Handbook

GENERAL GOALS OF THE PROGRAM

Improve the productivity and spirit of working-teams
Increase organizational effectiveness through cultural understanding
Promote intercultural competence
Advance organizational change through cultural fusion
Apply intercultural competence to other organizational contexts

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

To learn the distinction between objective (Big C) and
subjective culture (Little c).
- To learn the differences in behavior and thought between individualistic (I cultures) and collectivistic cultures (we cultures)
- To learn how individualism and collectivism influence the way team members deal with disagreements.
- To learn how” I” and “we” cultures organize verbal and non-verbal communication
- To learn how ” I” and “we” cultures approach a task
- To learn how ” I” and “we” cultures perceive time
- To learn how ethnocentrism influences the way we perceive and evaluate others.

INDIVIDUALISM Vs. COLLECTIVISM

Individualism denotes strong emphasis towards independence and self-reliance. Contrastingly, collectivism stresses interdependence. In a collective culture people feel bound to a group. Notions of solidarity and harmony are often reflected in social interactions.

Cultural orientations towards individualism and collectivism are learned directly and indirectly in childhood. In societies that stress individualism, children are ideally born into small nuclear families, generally including one or both parents and possibly other children. Other relatives live elsewhere. Members of such cultures develop a strong sense of “I,” the individual.

In Collectivistic societies, households may include grandparents, uncles, aunts, nephews, cousins, servants and other housemates. Children develop a strong sense of ”We.”

Collectivistic perspectives continue even in highly developed industrial societies. Many collectivistic assumptions survive economic changes, technological transformations, and family composition. In cultures where life with the extended family is no longer possible, friends and neighbors often replace their cultural needs for interdependence. Collectivism, may also be seen as a state of mind, a world view transferred to relationships and ways of working In short; people can share strong notions of collectivism even in highly modernized societies.

I-----------------------------WE

Different cultures are at different places in the continuum. So are individuals. While individualism and collectivism are present in all cultures, most of the time, one of these orientations is prevalent over the others. This is especially true in organizations. We evaluate workers, colleagues, leaders, teachers, and students, according to expectations formed mainly by culturally based dominant orientations that guide our lives. Inevitably, where there is cultural dominance there is also cultural conflict.

In making decisions collectivistic cultures take into account the values and interests of the particular social networks they are bound to. In collective cultures such as Japan or Argentina, identity and self-worth of people are embedded in the organizations where they work. This is in sharp contrast to individualists, who can experience a sense of self-worth by working hard on their individual goals, independent from the overall objectives of an organization.

Individualism and collectivism influence the way the information flows within an organization and between organizations. The more individualistic the organization the more competitive is the interaction between members and between organizations. Competition leads to the withholding of information, which in turn can lead to conflict and tragic events, specially if the organizatons competing with each other are responsible for protecting the public from potential danger. In collectivistic cultures the information flows more freely, becoming more difficult to withhold. Different assumptions about privacy and achievement allow for more sharing of information within and between organizational networks.

Individualism is a cultural pattern usually found in northern and Western regions of Europe and in North America. Most cultures in the world are “we” cultures. Collectivism is common in Asia, Africa, South America, and the Pacific. In his multinational survey, Hofstede found that the United States was the world’s most individualistic nation. Other countries high in this quality were Australia, Great Britain, Canada, the Netherlands, and New Zealand (Geert Hofstede, Culture and Organizations, Software of the Mind, McGraw Hill, 1991)

Individualism has marched inexorably through United States history …We (U.S. Americans) believe in the dignity, indeed the sacredness, of the individual. Anything that would violate our right to think for ourselves, judge for ourselves, make our own decision, live our lives as we see fit, is not only morally wrong, it is sacrilegious (Bella et.al, Habits of the Heart, Individualism and Commitment in American life, University Of California Press, 1985)

Individualism includes the desire to cut free from the past and define one’s own self. The primary mode of U.S. American involvement is choosing organizations that one can voluntarily join or voluntarily withdraw.

People in individualistic cultures perceive social structure not as a system made up of different groups considered to be in a symbiotic relationship, but rather of different individuals who come together to do something.

Collectivists may show a greater willingness to conform to the views of others in the group. Collectivists may have a private opinion, but they are more likely to keep it to themselves if they see that their opinion might cause a disruption in the group. There is more concern with maintaining the approval of one’s group and more emphasis on helping others to save face and maintaining group harmony.

Cultures express individualism and collectivism in different ways. For example, Argentina and Japan are considered collectivistic cultures. Yet, unlike Japan, Argentina relies on verbal output to express solidarity and interdependence. Japanese culture is generally less verbal and more hierarchical in nature.

The influence of "I"---"WE" cultures is organized in five dimensions:

ETHNOCENTRISM. How do I and We orientations impact on perception?
RELATIONAL DIMENSION: How do team members deal with disagreements?
EXPRESSIVE DIMENSION: How do team members organize communication?
TASK DIMENSION: How do team members approach a task?
TIME DIMENSION How do team members perceive time?

ETHNOCENTRISM AND STEREOTYPING ARE KEY ELEMENTS OF THIS DIMENSION.

“Dear, I like traveling to foreign places with you. This Mexican village is so charming,” said the boy friend, as they walked through the market area on weekday afternoon. The lady with the red hat, staring at the rows of empty kiosks and shops, answered with a sigh, “Yes, but these people must be so lazy, why are they not working. That’s why they are underdeveloped.”

How is ethnocentrism reflected in this exchange?

HOW DO TEAM MEMBERS DEAL WITH DISAGREEMENTS?

Independence_____________Interdependence

Confrontative _____________Non- Confrontative

Egalitarian________________Hierarchical

“What is our exposure if we have one death?”

“We have exposure,” argues the opponent.

In general individualists make distinctions between ideas and feelings. This makes it easier for ideas to be attacked without necessarily attacking the person. This notion is central to the acceptance of competition as a healthy way to deal with disagreements. It is assumed that the truth will emerge as a result of vigorous debate. Again we see this in an exchange a few seconds later. Raising his voice one of the most vocal members continues the attack against the individual who argued for a larger recall:

“For all the bleeding hearts, that say don’t produce it..”

“I am not saying don’t produce it…”

When one of the female U.S members says: “I disagree, I think that will be the demise of our company,” she is not attacking the person, she is competing against the idea with the hope of reaching a satisfactory solution.

Individualists believe that each member has the right to participate in the discussion. As such, it would be the participants’ responsibility to take action and assert his or her opinion and persuade others. Notice that in the U.S. group some team members do not participate in the debate. This is their prerogative, however, competition seldom leads to participants being invited to debate. In collectivistic cultures, the opposite is true.

Collectivistic members generally avoid public discord. Disagreements are frequently expressed in question form in order to avoid conflict. Collectivistic members tend to contribute their own ideas by attaching them to the thoughts or ideas of others. Consequently, they are willing to let their own thoughts be subsumed in the ideas of others, and therefore sacrifice their own opinions for the sake of group cohesion. Collectivists tend to be sensitive to the feelings of the group. For example, in the video, Hector, one of the Argentinean team members, disagrees with the rest of the group. One of the members makes a statement that attempts to bring Hector to the fore. While in the end Hector may still disagree with the team’s decision, his opposition is mitigated by the open acknowledgement of the other members. The rest of the group, sensitive to Hector’s discomfort, continues to talk about his concerns. At the end a decision was made, without any overt discord.

The lack of overt conflict is also evident in the Japanese segment. One of the team members becomes the leader and proceeds to facilitate the inclusion of all the ideas within the group. Confrontation and open disagreements are not publicly displayed.

In the sequence of interaction between U.S. and Japanese team members, we see what happens when individualistic and collectivistic cultures clash. When the U.S. member expresses his opinion, the Japanese, nods affirmatively, and says: “I agree with you,” and then proposes a completely opposite idea. The Japanese is intent, on not openly displaying disagreement. In this sequence silence also becomes a way for the Japanese members to show their disagreement. At the end of the meeting the U.S. members mistake the absence of words for agreement.

There is a general correlation between individualism and an egalitarian orientation in team interaction. Consequently, individualists tend to encourage informality and equality when making decisions. Even when a boss is leading a discussion the opinions of others are sought and offered. At the same time disagreements are expressed openly and without reservation. The assumption is that individuals ought to express their own ideas in order to solve a common problem. In individualistic contexts, even someone without experience or seniority is allowed to participate and verbally compete for the floor. In order to emphasize informality people call each other by their first name.

There is a general correlation between collectivism and a hierarchical orientation in team interaction. Members of hierarchical cultures, especially Asians, may call other members of their working teams by their last names. People do not talk out of order and priority is given to the facilitator or leader. A hierarchical orientation implies awareness of people’s age, experience and title. This in itself increases the consciousness that group members have about each other. Notice how in the Japanese group the leader refers to the other members by their last name.

HOW DO TEAM MEMBERS ORGANIZE COMMUNICATION?

Lineal_______________ Circular

Verbal_______________ Non-verbal

Assertive_____________Expressive

The way each group initiates the meeting illustrates the distinctions between individualists and collectivists. The U.S group starts directly, without any background explanation: "I think the only approach is to go to the pediatricians." The statement sets up the context for the ensuing debate.

Collectivistic cultures tend to organize communication very differently. Statements generally begin with an extensive presentation that provides the context for the issue. Specific proposals are usually made after a background has been set, towards the end of the statement. The end of the statement is followed by a positive response built upon the proposal just made.

This is evident in the Argentinean group. One of the members gives a lengthy rendition that serves to cushion his proposal put forward towards the end of the speech. Similarly, it serves as the basis for other members to contribute their ideas. It becomes very difficult to compete, if a member eloquently sets the stage for the development of the main idea. This process is similar to the Japanese group. The leader introduces the problem and invites others to participate: "What do you all think about this?" The Japanese respondent also summarizes the issue at hand and ends his long statement with: "That's what I think." Contrastingly, the U.S. participants are more direct and start their statements with: "I think."

In individualistic cultures statements are generally concise and direct. Proposals are made directly without context or introduction. Ideas tied to specific actions are stated in the beginning with the expectation of validation throughout the deliberations. A persuasive individual must be verbally articulate and in command of the facts. To move, even slightly, into a different direction is considered digressing and not being able to stick to the specific issue at hand. Consequently, lineality, and specificity are fundamental aspects of a well-organized argument. Individuals who are lineal- able to back up arguments with facts or numbers- are considered articulate and intelligent. They usually emerge as team leaders.

In collectivistic cultures divergence of opinion is not stated directly. Disagreements are expressed in question form. In the sequence between the Japanese and the U.S. one of the Japanese members indirectly shows his disagreement by asking a question: "So you think a warning to the public immediately is not very good?" The U.S. participant answers: "I don't think is the prudent way..." The Japanese follows: "Not prudent?"

In the business context, collectivists give special emphasis to the ability of the speaker to make a point without directly confronting the other members. Once a proposal statement is made, others in the team provide additional ideas and work towards a common understanding. Competition and overt disagreements are generally avoided.

In the context of Japanese culture, silence and non-verbal behavior are considered part of communication. Silence may be used to show disagreement, decrease the possibility of discord or to reflect and think before speaking. In the video, the silence makes the U.S group uncomfortable, leaving them wondering how to interpret its meaning.

It is interesting to note that when the U.S. and Japanese group meet, a U.S. group member says: "We could take this and turn lemons into lemonade." Idiomatic expressions like this one are too culture specific to be effective persuasion tools in cross-cultural encounters and usually result in miss-communication.

HOW DO TEAM MEMBERS APPROACH A PROBLEM?

Quantitative_________Holistic

Depersonalized_______Personalized

Outcome____________ Process

A mechanistic orientation reinforces the specialization roles within an organization. Departments within an organization see themselves as components of a large machine. Each component has responsibility over a particular aspect of its mission.

The tendency to divide the world into component parts makes it easier to separate business from that which is considered personal. A worldview that stresses fragmentation often reinforces the distinction between the problem at hand and the human context that surrounds it. Consequently, tasks are approached in a depersonalized way. Reason and evidence are the supreme tools of decision making, while intuition or emotional perspectives are often perceived as vague or unscientific.

In the video we see how the U.S. members separate business from emotional or social issues. Consequently, a strategy is devised to deal with issues of liability and costs without regard to their obligation to society.

Collectivistic cultures, specially Japan, tend to perceive life differently. The world is not conceived in mechanistic terms. On the contrary, humanity is viewed as inseparable from the environment, striving to seek harmony with it. If people perceive themselves as embedded in nature it becomes more difficult to analyze a problem divided into its different components. There is a tendency to apply a traditional pre-conceived solution or rule or to seek the council of someone in authority. Such a holistic approach makes it more difficult to separate business from the personal or to even see the company as separate from the larger community it represents. These assumptions about nature and harmony influence how collectivistic cultures approach a problem and how they make decisions.

In the video the Japanese take into consideration the issue of "reputation." The meaning of reputation is embedded in their obligations to their employees, customers and the town where the business is located. One of the members states that if the company makes a recall announcement no one will come to work the next day.

It is interesting to notice how the U.S. group, when meeting the Japanese, use the notion of a problem as an opportunity. Their attitudes andstatements correspond with a mechanistic world-view in which problems are always perceived as fixable. Every problem has a solution. By contrast, a holistic approach, which does not separate business from personal or social obligations, makes an optimistic problem soving world-view more difficult to hold and attain.

Assumptions about the world as material and mechanistic reinforce an analytical style of solving problems. Issues are almost always separated into components that are visible, measurable and objective. Quantification reduces complex issues into manageable parts. Quoting a text or using a document is essential to proving a point or analyzing a potential course of action.

In the video the U.S. group uses the text to persuade others. They make references to specific numbers quoted in their document. They use numbers to persuade those who dissent. The Argentineans and Japanese teams disregard the text. No reference is made to it. Notice that in their deliberations the Japanese group talks about the issues in a general way, in terms of general principles rather than concrete examples. Specific suggestions are not the center of discussion. To U.S. American ears their suggestions sound vague, lacking a specific course of action.

In Japanese organizations, decisions are typically made before the group meets. Individuals may persuade each other in one to one meetings. This process insures that the meeting will proceed harmoniously. Once the group meets the ideas may be developed further, but never in competition. This Japanese process of consultation and overt conflict avoidance is called nemawashi.

Collectivistic cultures emphasize process over outcome. It is important to consult with different constituencies before making a decision. If people perceive themselves as embedded in a larger whole, it is difficult to make a decision independently from the context. Similarly, it is difficult to make a decision if anyone disagrees within the group.

HOW DO TEAM MEMBERS PERCEIVE TIME?

Evolving _____________Historical

The polarities in the continuum illustrate the complex influences of time on team decision-making and interaction. For example, the distinction between “limited” and “abundant” implies conflicting perceptions in intercultural settings.

Individualistic cultures, especially U.S. professionals, value time as a limited resource, a primary factor in achieving efficient productivity. A business meeting is considered successful if participants complete their agenda efficiently, without tangential distractions.

Limited orientations towards time equate intelligence and competence with quickness. Consequently, the most intelligent people should “think on their feet,” solve problems and finish their task as rapidly as possible. It is not a coincidence that tests of intelligence are often constructed with the notion of equating competence with quickness.

In business meetings, team members are expected to speak concisely, making their point in a short period of time. Participants in discussions and debates assume their time is limited and they expect others to behave similarly. These assumptions are very clear in the videos. Notice how the U.S.team members speak in short sentences and in a concise manner.

Cultures which perceive time as abundant have different assumptions about efficiency, productivity and competence. A successful professional meeting may not be evaluated in terms of accomplishing an agenda at once. It may be measured in terms of establishing a preliminary personal context needed to facilitate success in subsequent meetings. A speaker may take a long time to make a point, because the participant is establishing a context or background before making his specific views known.

In the video, the Argentinean team member introduces the issue at hand and speaks for a long time before making his proposal. He is unconsciously laying the ground for the rest of the participants. His wordy and lengthy introduction serves as the core of the decision making process upon which the rest of the team will build its final outcome. Everyone in the group listens attentively without showing any impatience or rush. The participants have unconsciously accepted that the deliberations will begin with a long and articulate presentation.

Distinctions between evolving and historical perceptions of time are also crucial to intercultural relations. Individualistic cultures, and more extremely, U.S. professionals, perceive time as moving linearly from the past, barely slowing for the present and rushing into the future. With the scientific support of developmental and evolutionary theories, they see time as ascending linearly from the primitive past to a superior present and to an even more progressive future in which nature is dominated by technology.

In practical terms, notions of time as evolving reinforce and discourage the careful examination of the past in decision-making. An evolving perspective tends to frame the past in negative terms,undermining the importance of history. As a consequence, the examination of the historical context surrounding a problem is generally deemed inefficient or irrelevant. As a result, organizations with an evolving view of time fail to study past patterns to identify present problems.

In most collectivistic cultures, time is rooted in fixed notions of the past, closely integrated with the present and the future. Some Asian cultures see the universe as an infinite and abstract cycle: birth, life and death. These integrated perspectives of time include the historical context in relationships between people and in decision-making strategies.

In the videos the U.S. team often refers to the need to act quickly, similarly, to grow the company and even see their setback as opportunities for the future. The Japanese take on a more communitarian approach. They seem to balance the survival of the company with the welfare of the employees and the town.

Notice the differences about the meaning of "immediately." The Argentinean speaker states that the problem must be solved at once. Therefore, starting tomorrow (Mañana) everything must be done to deal with the issue at hand. The U.S. group, implies that immediately means right now.

SUBJECTIVE CULTURE OR "LITTLE c"

“Today we are going to the Opera,” said the lady with the red hat. “Oh an evening of culture,” responded her boyfriend, piercingly staring into her eyes, hoping she will change her mind”

We already know what aspects of “big c” are reflected in the above exchange. Now what do you think are the components of “little c”?

The less obvious aspect of culture is its subjective side. What we can call "little c." It refers to psychological features, assumptions, values and needs, often expressed non-verbally or implicitly. In the case of the above exchange the non-verbal message sent by the boyfriend is the subjective aspect of the interaction.

“Little c” constitutes the processes that define a group of people, while “big C” constitutes the content. In the exchange about the opera, the boyfriend expressed his wishes non-verbally. He was most likely understood by the lady in the red hat, because they unconsciously shared the meaning of his stare. The same stare, in a different cultural context, may create problems in interaction.

People who share similar basic life experiences develop similar cognitive and emotional structures. This causes the cultural group to perceive the environments in certain and consistent way. These subjective elements surface spontaneously in human interaction. It causes problems when people assume that everyone shares the same assumptions about work, the same modes of communication and the same styles of approaching a task or solving a problem. This is not always so.

Consequently competence is not about learning only explicit content, but also understanding the unconscious hidden messages exchanged between people in the same culture. Understanding subjective cultures-ones own and others’-is fundamental to achieving intercultural competence.

Subjective culture or “little c” is informally learned and unconsciously shared. It is a given group’s characteristic way of perceiving its social environment.

Consequently it is the process, rather than the content, produced by a group of interacting team members attempting to solve a problem.

PROFICIENCY IN LINGUISTIC, GEOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL FACTS MAKES US CULTURALLY COMPETENT.
MUSICAL COMPOSITIONS ARE ASPECTS OF SUBJECTIVE CULTURE.
OBJECTIVE CULTURE IS ACQUIRED THROUGH FORMAL EDUCATION.
THE RECOMMENDATIONS ARRIVED AT BY WORK-TEAMS ARE ASPECTS OF OBJECTIVE CULTURE.
CULTURE IS A SYSTEM OF SHARED KNOWLEDGE.
ASSUMPTIONS AND VALUES ARE PART OF OBJECTIVE CULTURE.
CULTURES EMPHASIZE COOPERATION AMONG WORK-TEAM MEMBERS.
MOST CULTURES IN THE WORLD ARE INDIVIDUALISTIC.
THERE IS A CORRELATION BETWEEN INDIVIDUALISM AND HOW TASKS ARE ACCOMPLISHED.
STEREOTYPES REINFORCE GROUP SOLIDARITY.
ETHNOCENTRISM IS THE STUDY OF ETHNIC GROUPS.
COLLECTIVISTIC CULTURES TAKE THEIR TIME IN MAKING DECISIONS.
HIERARCHICAL CULTURES ARE USUALLY INDIVIDUALISTIC.
IN INDIVIDUALISTIC CULTURES GROUP DECISIONS ARE MADE AS A RESULT OF SPIRITED DEBATE.
COLLECTIVISTIC WORK-TEAMS SEPARATE FACTS FROM FEELINGS WHEN DEALING WITH DISAGREEMENTS.
BEING VERBALLY ARTICULATE IS A SIGN OF INTELLIGENCE IN ALL CULTURES.
WE CULTURES EMPHASIZE THE SEPARATION OF BUSINESS FROM PERSONAL MATTERS.
IN INDIVIDUALISTIC CULTURES, ONLY THE HEAD OF THE TEAM CAN PERSUADE OTHERS.
INDIVIDUALISTIC CULTURES USUALLY BELIEVE THAT KNOWLEDGE OF HISTORY IS ESSENTIAL TO PROGRESS.
INDIVIDUALISTIC CULTURES SEE TIME AS LIMITED.
COLLECTIVISTIC CULTURES EXPRESS THEIR DISAGREEMENTS IN QUESTION FORM.
COLLECTIVISM IS NO LONGER POSSIBLE IN MODERNISED SOCIETIES.
INFORMATION ABOUT INDIVIDUALISM AND COLLECTIVISM IS INTERESTING, BUT IT DOES NOT HAVE ANY PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS.

OVERALL OBJECTIVES OF THE PROGRAM

Improve the productivity and spirit of working-teams
Increase organizational effectiveness through cultural understanding
Promote intercultural competence
Advance organizational change through cultural fusion
Apply intercultural competence to other organizational contexts

User login

menu_Supplements

menu_Articles

Crosscultural Conference Handbook